1.\" 2.\" Copyright (c) 1996 David E. O'Brien, Joerg Wunsch 3.\" 4.\" All rights reserved. 5.\" 6.\" Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without 7.\" modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions 8.\" are met: 9.\" 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright 10.\" notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 11.\" 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright 12.\" notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the 13.\" documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. 14.\" 15.\" THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE DEVELOPERS ``AS IS'' AND ANY EXPRESS OR 16.\" IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES 17.\" OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. 18.\" IN NO EVENT SHALL THE DEVELOPERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, 19.\" INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT 20.\" NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, 21.\" DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY 22.\" THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT 23.\" (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF 24.\" THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. 25.\" 26.\" $FreeBSD$ 27.\" 28.Dd January 20, 1996 29.Dt INTRO 4 30.Os 31.Sh NAME 32.Nm intro 33.Nd introduction to devices and device drivers 34.Sh DESCRIPTION 35This section contains information related to devices, device driver 36and miscellaneous hardware. 37.Ss The device abstraction 38Device is a term used mostly for hardware-related stuff that belongs 39to the system, like disks, printers, or a graphics display with its 40keyboard. There are also so-called 41.Em pseudo-devices 42where a device driver emulates the behaviour of a device in software 43without any particular underlying hardware. A typical example for 44the latter class is 45.Pa /dev/mem , 46a loophole where the physical memory can be accessed using the regular 47file access semantics. 48.Pp 49The device abstraction generally provides a common set of system calls 50layered on top of them, which are dispatched to the corresponding 51device driver by the upper layers of the kernel. The set of system 52calls available for devices is chosen from 53.Xr open 2 , 54.Xr close 2 , 55.Xr read 2 , 56.Xr write 2 , 57.Xr ioctl 2 , 58.Xr select 2 , 59and 60.Xr mmap 2 . 61Not all drivers implement all system calls, for example, calling 62.Xr mmap 2 63on a terminal devices is likely to be not useful at all. 64.Ss Accessing Devices 65Most of the devices in a unix-like operating system are accessed 66through so-called 67.Em device nodes , 68sometimes also called 69.Em special files . 70They are usually located under the directory 71.Pa /dev 72in the file system hierarchy 73(see also 74.Xr hier 7 ) . 75.Pp 76Until 77.Xr devfs 5 78is fully functional, each device node must be created statically and 79independently of the existence of the associated device driver, 80usually by running 81.Xr MAKEDEV 8 . 82.Pp 83Note that this could lead to an inconsistent state, where either there 84are device nodes that do not have a configured driver associated with 85them, or there may be drivers that have successfully probed for their 86devices, but cannot be accessed since the corresponding device node is 87still missing. In the first case, any attempt to reference the device 88through the device node will result in an error, returned by the upper 89layers of the kernel, usually 90.Er ENXIO . 91In the second case, the device node needs to be created before the 92driver and its device will be usable. 93.Pp 94Some devices come in two flavors: 95.Em block 96and 97.Em character 98devices, or by a better name, buffered and unbuffered 99(raw) 100devices. The traditional names are reflected by the letters 101.Ql b 102and 103.Ql c 104as the file type identification in the output of 105.Ql ls -l . 106Buffered devices are being accessed through the buffer cache of the 107operating system, and they are solely intended to layer a file system 108on top of them. They are normally implemented for disks and disk-like 109devices only, for historical reasons also for tape devices. 110.Pp 111Raw devices are available for all drivers, including those that also 112implement a buffered device. For the latter group of devices, the 113differentiation is conventionally done by prepending the letter 114.Ql r 115to the path name of the device node, for example 116.Pa /dev/rda0 117denotes the raw device for the first SCSI disk, while 118.Pa /dev/da0 119is the corresponding device node for the buffered device. 120.Pp 121Unbuffered devices should be used for all actions that are not related 122to file system operations, even if the device in question is a disk 123device. This includes making backups of entire disk partitions, or 124to 125.Em raw 126floppy disks 127(i.e. those used like tapes). 128.Pp 129Access restrictions to device nodes are usually subject of the regular 130file permissions of the device node entry, instead of being implied 131directly by the drivers in the kernel. 132.Ss Drivers without device nodes 133Drivers for network devices do not use device nodes in order to be 134accessed. Their selection is based on other decisions inside the 135kernel, and instead of calling 136.Xr open 2 , 137use of a network device is generally introduced by using the system 138call 139.Xr socket 2 . 140.Ss Configuring a driver into the kernel 141For each kernel, there is a configuration file that is used as a base 142to select the facilities and drivers for that kernel, and to tune 143several options. See 144.Xr config 8 145for a detailed description of the files involved. The individual 146manual pages in this section provide a sample line for the 147configuration file in their synopsis portion. See also the sample 148config file 149.Pa /sys/i386/conf/LINT 150(for the 151.Em i386 152architecture). 153.Sh SEE ALSO 154.Xr close 2 , 155.Xr ioctl 2 , 156.Xr mmap 2 , 157.Xr open 2 , 158.Xr read 2 , 159.Xr select 2 , 160.Xr socket 2 , 161.Xr write 2 , 162.Xr devfs 5 , 163.Xr hier 7 , 164.Xr config 8 , 165.Xr MAKEDEV 8 166.Sh AUTHORS 167.An -nosplit 168This man page has been written by 169.An J\(:org Wunsch 170with initial input by 171.An David E. O'Brien . 172.Sh HISTORY 173.Nm Intro 174appeared in 175.Fx 2.1 . 176