When you login, the shell is started by the system in your home directory and begins by reading commands from a file .cshrc in this directory. All shells which you may start during your terminal session will read from this file. We will later see what kinds of commands are usefully placed there. For now we need not have this file and the shell does not complain about its absence.

A "login shell" , executed after you login to the system, will, after it reads commands from .cshrc, read commands from a file .login also in your home directory. This file contains commands which you wish to do each time you login to the \s-2UNIX\s0 system. My .login file looks something like: set ignoreeof set mail=(/usr/spool/mail/bill) echo "${prompt}users" ; users alias ts \e \'set noglob ; eval \`tset -s -m dialup:c100rv4pna -m plugboard:?hp2621nl \!*\`\'; ts; stty intr ^C kill ^U crt set time=15 history=10 msgs -f if (-e $mail) then echo "${prompt}mail" mail endif

This file contains several commands to be executed by \s-2UNIX\s0 each time I login. The first is a set command which is interpreted directly by the shell. It sets the shell variable ignoreeof which causes the shell to not log me off if I hit ^D. Rather, I use the logout command to log off of the system. By setting the mail variable, I ask the shell to watch for incoming mail to me. Every 5 minutes the shell looks for this file and tells me if more mail has arrived there. An alternative to this is to put the command biff y in place of this set; this will cause me to be notified immediately when mail arrives, and to be shown the first few lines of the new message.

Next I set the shell variable `time' to `15' causing the shell to automatically print out statistics lines for commands which execute for at least 15 seconds of \s-2CPU\s+2 time. The variable `history' is set to 10 indicating that I want the shell to remember the last 10 commands I type in its "history list" , (described later).

I create an alias ``ts'' which executes a tset\|(1) command setting up the modes of the terminal. The parameters to tset indicate the kinds of terminal which I usually use when not on a hardwired port. I then execute ``ts'' and also use the stty command to change the interrupt character to ^C and the line kill character to ^U.

I then run the `msgs' program, which provides me with any system messages which I have not seen before; the `-f' option here prevents it from telling me anything if there are no new messages. Finally, if my mailbox file exists, then I run the `mail' program to process my mail.

When the `mail' and `msgs' programs finish, the shell will finish processing my .login file and begin reading commands from the terminal, prompting for each with `% '. When I log off (by giving the logout command) the shell will print `logout' and execute commands from the file `.logout' if it exists in my home directory. After that the shell will terminate and \s-2UNIX\s0 will log me off the system. If the system is not going down, I will receive a new login message. In any case, after the `logout' message the shell is committed to terminating and will take no further input from my terminal. Shell variables

The shell maintains a set of variables. We saw above the variables history and time which had values `10' and `15'. In fact, each shell variable has as value an array of zero or more strings. Shell variables may be assigned values by the set command. It has several forms, the most useful of which was given above and is set name=value

Shell variables may be used to store values which are to be used in commands later through a substitution mechanism. The shell variables most commonly referenced are, however, those which the shell itself refers to. By changing the values of these variables one can directly affect the behavior of the shell.

One of the most important variables is the variable path. This variable contains a sequence of directory names where the shell searches for commands. The set command with no arguments shows the value of all variables currently defined (we usually say set) in the shell. The default value for path will be shown by set to be % set argv () cwd /usr/bill home /usr/bill path (. /usr/ucb /bin /usr/bin) prompt % shell /bin/csh status 0 term c100rv4pna user bill % .so tabs This output indicates that the variable path points to the current directory `.' and then `/usr/ucb', `/bin' and `/usr/bin'. Commands which you may write might be in `.' (usually one of your directories). Commands developed at Berkeley, live in `/usr/ucb' while commands developed at Bell Laboratories live in `/bin' and `/usr/bin'.

A number of locally developed programs on the system live in the directory `/usr/local'. If we wish that all shells which we invoke to have access to these new programs we can place the command set path=(. /usr/ucb /bin /usr/bin /usr/local) in our file .cshrc in our home directory. Try doing this and then logging out and back in and do set again to see that the value assigned to path has changed. .FS \(dg Another directory that might interest you is /usr/new, which contains many useful user-contributed programs provided with Berkeley Unix. .FE

One thing you should be aware of is that the shell examines each directory which you insert into your path and determines which commands are contained there. Except for the current directory `.', which the shell treats specially, this means that if commands are added to a directory in your search path after you have started the shell, they will not necessarily be found by the shell. If you wish to use a command which has been added in this way, you should give the command rehash to the shell, which will cause it to recompute its internal table of command locations, so that it will find the newly added command. Since the shell has to look in the current directory `.' on each command, placing it at the end of the path specification usually works equivalently and reduces overhead.

Other useful built in variables are the variable home which shows your home directory, cwd which contains your current working directory, the variable ignoreeof which can be set in your .login file to tell the shell not to exit when it receives an end-of-file from a terminal (as described above). The variable `ignoreeof' is one of several variables which the shell does not care about the value of, only whether they are set or unset. Thus to set this variable you simply do set ignoreeof and to unset it do unset ignoreeof These give the variable `ignoreeof' no value, but none is desired or required.

Finally, some other built-in shell variables of use are the variables noclobber and mail. The metasyntax > filename which redirects the standard output of a command will overwrite and destroy the previous contents of the named file. In this way you may accidentally overwrite a file which is valuable. If you would prefer that the shell not overwrite files in this way you can set noclobber in your .login file. Then trying to do date > now would cause a diagnostic if `now' existed already. You could type date >! now if you really wanted to overwrite the contents of `now'. The `>!' is a special metasyntax indicating that clobbering the file is ok.\(dg .FS \(dgThe space between the `!' and the word `now' is critical here, as `!now' would be an invocation of the history mechanism, and have a totally different effect. .FE The shell's history list

The shell can maintain a "history list" into which it places the words of previous commands. It is possible to use a notation to reuse commands or words from commands in forming new commands. This mechanism can be used to repeat previous commands or to correct minor typing mistakes in commands.

The following figure gives a sample session involving typical usage of the history mechanism of the shell. .KF % cat bug.c main() { printf("hello); } % cc !$ cc bug.c "bug.c", line 4: newline in string or char constant "bug.c", line 5: syntax error % ed !$ ed bug.c 29 4s/);/"&/p printf("hello"); w 30 q % !c cc bug.c % a.out hello% !e ed bug.c 30 4s/lo/lo\e\en/p printf("hello\en"); w 32 q % !c -o bug cc bug.c -o bug % size a.out bug a.out: 2784+364+1028 = 4176b = 0x1050b bug: 2784+364+1028 = 4176b = 0x1050b % ls -l !* ls -l a.out bug -rwxr-xr-x 1 bill 3932 Dec 19 09:41 a.out -rwxr-xr-x 1 bill 3932 Dec 19 09:42 bug % bug hello % num bug.c | spp spp: Command not found. % ^spp^ssp num bug.c | ssp 1 main() 3 { 4 printf("hello\en"); 5 } % !! | lpr num bug.c | ssp | lpr % .KE In this example we have a very simple C program which has a bug (or two) in it in the file `bug.c', which we `cat' out on our terminal. We then try to run the C compiler on it, referring to the file again as `!$', meaning the last argument to the previous command. Here the `!' is the history mechanism invocation metacharacter, and the `$' stands for the last argument, by analogy to `$' in the editor which stands for the end of the line. The shell echoed the command, as it would have been typed without use of the history mechanism, and then executed it. The compilation yielded error diagnostics so we now run the editor on the file we were trying to compile, fix the bug, and run the C compiler again, this time referring to this command simply as `!c', which repeats the last command which started with the letter `c'. If there were other commands starting with `c' done recently we could have said `!cc' or even `!cc:p' which would have printed the last command starting with `cc' without executing it.

After this recompilation, we ran the resulting `a.out' file, and then noting that there still was a bug, ran the editor again. After fixing the program we ran the C compiler again, but tacked onto the command an extra `-o bug' telling the compiler to place the resultant binary in the file `bug' rather than `a.out'. In general, the history mechanisms may be used anywhere in the formation of new commands and other characters may be placed before and after the substituted commands.

We then ran the `size' command to see how large the binary program images we have created were, and then an `ls -l' command with the same argument list, denoting the argument list `\!*'. Finally we ran the program `bug' to see that its output is indeed correct.

To make a numbered listing of the program we ran the `num' command on the file `bug.c'. In order to compress out blank lines in the output of `num' we ran the output through the filter `ssp', but misspelled it as spp. To correct this we used a shell substitute, placing the old text and new text between `^' characters. This is similar to the substitute command in the editor. Finally, we repeated the same command with `!!', but sent its output to the line printer.

There are other mechanisms available for repeating commands. The history command prints out a number of previous commands with numbers by which they can be referenced. There is a way to refer to a previous command by searching for a string which appeared in it, and there are other, less useful, ways to select arguments to include in a new command. A complete description of all these mechanisms is given in the C shell manual pages in the \s-2UNIX\s0 Programmer's Manual. Aliases

The shell has an alias mechanism which can be used to make transformations on input commands. This mechanism can be used to simplify the commands you type, to supply default arguments to commands, or to perform transformations on commands and their arguments. The alias facility is similar to a macro facility. Some of the features obtained by aliasing can be obtained also using shell command files, but these take place in another instance of the shell and cannot directly affect the current shells environment or involve commands such as cd which must be done in the current shell.

As an example, suppose that there is a new version of the mail program on the system called `newmail' you wish to use, rather than the standard mail program which is called `mail'. If you place the shell command alias mail newmail in your .cshrc file, the shell will transform an input line of the form mail bill into a call on `newmail'. More generally, suppose we wish the command `ls' to always show sizes of files, that is to always do `-s'. We can do alias ls ls -s or even alias dir ls -s creating a new command syntax `dir' which does an `ls -s'. If we say dir ~bill then the shell will translate this to ls -s /mnt/bill

Thus the alias mechanism can be used to provide short names for commands, to provide default arguments, and to define new short commands in terms of other commands. It is also possible to define aliases which contain multiple commands or pipelines, showing where the arguments to the original command are to be substituted using the facilities of the history mechanism. Thus the definition alias cd \'cd \e!* ; ls \' would do an ls command after each change directory cd command. We enclosed the entire alias definition in `\'' characters to prevent most substitutions from occurring and the character `;' from being recognized as a metacharacter. The `!' here is escaped with a `\e' to prevent it from being interpreted when the alias command is typed in. The `\e!*' here substitutes the entire argument list to the pre-aliasing cd command, without giving an error if there were no arguments. The `;' separating commands is used here to indicate that one command is to be done and then the next. Similarly the definition alias whois \'grep \e!^ /etc/passwd\' defines a command which looks up its first argument in the password file.

Warning: The shell currently reads the .cshrc file each time it starts up. If you place a large number of commands there, shells will tend to start slowly. A mechanism for saving the shell environment after reading the .cshrc file and quickly restoring it is under development, but for now you should try to limit the number of aliases you have to a reasonable number... 10 or 15 is reasonable, 50 or 60 will cause a noticeable delay in starting up shells, and make the system seem sluggish when you execute commands from within the editor and other programs. More redirection; >> and >&

There are a few more notations useful to the terminal user which have not been introduced yet.

In addition to the standard output, commands also have a "diagnostic output" which is normally directed to the terminal even when the standard output is redirected to a file or a pipe. It is occasionally desirable to direct the diagnostic output along with the standard output. For instance if you want to redirect the output of a long running command into a file and wish to have a record of any error diagnostic it produces you can do command >& file The `>&' here tells the shell to route both the diagnostic output and the standard output into `file'. Similarly you can give the command command |\|& lpr to route both standard and diagnostic output through the pipe to the line printer daemon lpr.\(dd .FS \(dd A command of the form

command >&! file

exists, and is used when noclobber is set and file already exists. .FE

Finally, it is possible to use the form command >> file to place output at the end of an existing file.\(dg .FS \(dg If noclobber is set, then an error will result if file does not exist, otherwise the shell will create file if it doesn't exist. A form

command >>! file

makes it not be an error for file to not exist when noclobber is set. .FE Jobs; Background, Foreground, or Suspended

When one or more commands are typed together as a pipeline or as a sequence of commands separated by semicolons, a single job is created by the shell consisting of these commands together as a unit. Single commands without pipes or semicolons create the simplest jobs. Usually, every line typed to the shell creates a job. Some lines that create jobs (one per line) are sort < data ls -s | sort -n | head -5 mail harold

If the metacharacter `&' is typed at the end of the commands, then the job is started as a background job. This means that the shell does not wait for it to complete but immediately prompts and is ready for another command. The job runs "in the background" at the same time that normal jobs, called foreground jobs, continue to be read and executed by the shell one at a time. Thus du > usage & would run the du program, which reports on the disk usage of your working directory (as well as any directories below it), put the output into the file `usage' and return immediately with a prompt for the next command without out waiting for du to finish. The du program would continue executing in the background until it finished, even though you can type and execute more commands in the mean time. When a background job terminates, a message is typed by the shell just before the next prompt telling you that the job has completed. In the following example the du job finishes sometime during the execution of the mail command and its completion is reported just before the prompt after the mail job is finished. % du > usage & [1] 503 % mail bill How do you know when a background job is finished? EOT [1] - Done du > usage % .so tabs If the job did not terminate normally the `Done' message might say something else like `Killed'. If you want the terminations of background jobs to be reported at the time they occur (possibly interrupting the output of other foreground jobs), you can set the notify variable. In the previous example this would mean that the `Done' message might have come right in the middle of the message to Bill. Background jobs are unaffected by any signals from the keyboard like the \s-2STOP\s0, \s-2INTERRUPT\s0, or \s-2QUIT\s0 signals mentioned earlier.

Jobs are recorded in a table inside the shell until they terminate. In this table, the shell remembers the command names, arguments and the "process numbers" of all commands in the job as well as the working directory where the job was started. Each job in the table is either running "in the foreground" with the shell waiting for it to terminate, running "in the background," or suspended. Only one job can be running in the foreground at one time, but several jobs can be suspended or running in the background at once. As each job is started, it is assigned a small identifying number called the "job number" which can be used later to refer to the job in the commands described below. Job numbers remain the same until the job terminates and then are re-used.

When a job is started in the background using `&', its number, as well as the process numbers of all its (top level) commands, is typed by the shell before prompting you for another command. For example, % ls -s | sort -n > usage & [2] 2034 2035 % runs the `ls' program with the `-s' options, pipes this output into the `sort' program with the `-n' option which puts its output into the file `usage'. Since the `&' was at the end of the line, these two programs were started together as a background job. After starting the job, the shell prints the job number in brackets (2 in this case) followed by the process number of each program started in the job. Then the shell immediates prompts for a new command, leaving the job running simultaneously.

As mentioned in section 1.8, foreground jobs become suspended by typing ^Z which sends a \s-2STOP\s0 signal to the currently running foreground job. A background job can become suspended by using the stop command described below. When jobs are suspended they merely stop any further progress until started again, either in the foreground or the background. The shell notices when a job becomes stopped and reports this fact, much like it reports the termination of background jobs. For foreground jobs this looks like % du > usage ^Z Stopped % `Stopped' message is typed by the shell when it notices that the du program stopped. For background jobs, using the stop command, it is % sort usage & [1] 2345 % stop %1 [1] + Stopped (signal) sort usage % .so tabs Suspending foreground jobs can be very useful when you need to temporarily change what you are doing (execute other commands) and then return to the suspended job. Also, foreground jobs can be suspended and then continued as background jobs using the bg command, allowing you to continue other work and stop waiting for the foreground job to finish. Thus % du > usage ^Z Stopped % bg [1] du > usage & % starts `du' in the foreground, stops it before it finishes, then continues it in the background allowing more foreground commands to be executed. This is especially helpful when a foreground job ends up taking longer than you expected and you wish you had started it in the background in the beginning.

All "job control" commands can take an argument that identifies a particular job. All job name arguments begin with the character `%', since some of the job control commands also accept process numbers (printed by the ps command.) The default job (when no argument is given) is called the current job and is identified by a `+' in the output of the jobs command, which shows you which jobs you have. When only one job is stopped or running in the background (the usual case) it is always the current job thus no argument is needed. If a job is stopped while running in the foreground it becomes the current job and the existing current job becomes the previous job - identified by a `-' in the output of jobs. When the current job terminates, the previous job becomes the current job. When given, the argument is either `%-' (indicating the previous job); `%#', where # is the job number; `%pref' where pref is some unique prefix of the command name and arguments of one of the jobs; or `%?' followed by some string found in only one of the jobs.

The jobs command types the table of jobs, giving the job number, commands and status (`Stopped' or `Running') of each background or suspended job. With the `-l' option the process numbers are also typed. % du > usage & [1] 3398 % ls -s | sort -n > myfile & [2] 3405 % mail bill ^Z Stopped % jobs [1] - Running du > usage [2] Running ls -s | sort -n > myfile [3] \(pl Stopped mail bill % fg %ls ls -s | sort -n > myfile % more myfile .so tabs

The fg command runs a suspended or background job in the foreground. It is used to restart a previously suspended job or change a background job to run in the foreground (allowing signals or input from the terminal). In the above example we used fg to change the `ls' job from the background to the foreground since we wanted to wait for it to finish before looking at its output file. The bg command runs a suspended job in the background. It is usually used after stopping the currently running foreground job with the \s-2STOP\s0 signal. The combination of the \s-2STOP\s0 signal and the bg command changes a foreground job into a background job. The stop command suspends a background job.

The kill command terminates a background or suspended job immediately. In addition to jobs, it may be given process numbers as arguments, as printed by ps. Thus, in the example above, the running du command could have been terminated by the command % kill %1 [1] Terminated du > usage % .so tabs

The notify command (not the variable mentioned earlier) indicates that the termination of a specific job should be reported at the time it finishes instead of waiting for the next prompt.

If a job running in the background tries to read input from the terminal it is automatically stopped. When such a job is then run in the foreground, input can be given to the job. If desired, the job can be run in the background again until it requests input again. This is illustrated in the following sequence where the `s' command in the text editor might take a long time.

% ed bigfile
120000
1,$s/thisword/thatword/
^Z
Stopped
% bg
[1] ed bigfile &
%
 . . . some foreground commands
[1] Stopped (tty input) ed bigfile
% fg
ed bigfile
w
120000
q
%
.so  tabs

So after the `s' command was issued, the `ed' job was stopped with ^Z
and then put in the background using
 bg. Some time later when the `s' command was finished,
 ed tried to read another command and was stopped because jobs
in the background cannot read from the terminal. The
 fg command returned the `ed' job to the foreground where it could once again
accept commands from the terminal.

The command

stty tostop

causes all background jobs run on your terminal to stop
when they are about to
write output to the terminal. This prevents messages from background
jobs from interrupting foreground job output and allows you to run
a job in the background without losing terminal output. It also
can be used for interactive programs that sometimes have long
periods without interaction. Thus each time it outputs a prompt for more
input it will stop before the prompt. It can then be run in the
foreground using
 fg, more input can be given and, if necessary stopped and returned to
the background. This
 stty command might be a good thing to put in your
 .login file if you do not like output from background jobs interrupting
your work. It also can reduce the need for redirecting the output
of background jobs if the output is not very big:

% stty tostop
% wc hugefile &
[1] 10387
% ed text
. . . some time later
q
[1] Stopped (tty output) wc hugefile
% fg wc
wc hugefile
 13371 30123 302577
% stty -tostop
.so  tabs

Thus after some time the `wc' command, which counts the lines, words
and characters in a file, had one line of output. When it tried to
write this to the terminal it stopped. By restarting it in the
foreground we allowed it to write on the terminal exactly when we were
ready to look at its output.
Programs which attempt to change the mode of the terminal will also
block, whether or not
 tostop is set, when they are not in the foreground, as
it would be very unpleasant to have a background job change the state
of the terminal.

Since the
 jobs command only prints jobs started in the currently executing shell,
it knows nothing about background jobs started in other login sessions
or within shell files. The
 ps can be used in this case to find out about background jobs not started
in the current shell.

Working Directories

As mentioned in section 1.6, the shell is always in a particular
 "working directory." The `change directory' command
 chdir (its
short form
 cd may also be used)
changes the working directory of the shell,
that is, changes the directory you
are located in.

It is useful to make a directory for each project you wish to work on
and to place all files related to that project in that directory.
The `make directory' command,
 mkdir, creates a new directory.
The
 pwd (`print working directory') command
reports the absolute pathname of the working directory of the shell,
that is, the directory you are
located in.
Thus in the example below:

% pwd
/usr/bill
% mkdir newpaper
% chdir newpaper
% pwd
/usr/bill/newpaper
%

the user has created and moved to the
directory
 newpaper. where, for example, he might
place a group of related files.

No matter where you have moved to in a directory hierarchy,
you can return to your `home' login directory by doing just

cd

with no arguments.
The name `..' always means the directory above the current one in
the hierarchy, thus

cd ..

changes the shell's working directory to the one directly above the
current one.
The name `..' can be used in any
pathname, thus,

cd ../programs

means
change to the directory `programs' contained in the directory
above the current one.
If you have several directories for different
projects under, say, your home directory,
this shorthand notation
permits you to switch easily between them.

The shell always remembers the pathname of its current working directory in
the variable
 cwd. The shell can also be requested to remember the previous directory when
you change to a new working directory. If the `push directory' command
 pushd is used in place of the
 cd command, the shell saves the name of the current working directory
on a
 "directory stack" before changing to the new one.
You can see this list at any time by typing the `directories'
command
 dirs. 
% pushd newpaper/references
~/newpaper/references ~
% pushd /usr/lib/tmac
/usr/lib/tmac ~/newpaper/references ~
% dirs
/usr/lib/tmac ~/newpaper/references ~
% popd
~/newpaper/references ~
% popd
~
%

The list is printed in a horizontal line, reading left to right,
with a tilde (~) as
shorthand for your home directory\(emin this case `/usr/bill'.
The directory stack is printed whenever there is more than one
entry on it and it changes.
It is also printed by a
 dirs command.
 Dirs is usually faster and more informative than
 pwd since it shows the current working directory as well as any
other directories remembered in the stack.

The
 pushd command with no argument
alternates the current directory with the first directory in the
list.
The `pop directory'
 popd command without an argument returns you to the directory you were in prior to
the current one, discarding the previous current directory from the
stack (forgetting it).
Typing
 popd several times in a series takes you backward through the directories
you had been in (changed to) by
 pushd command.
There are other options to
 pushd and
 popd to manipulate the contents of the directory stack and to change
to directories not at the top of the stack; see the
 csh manual page for details.

Since the shell remembers the working directory in which each job
was started, it warns you when you might be confused by restarting
a job in the foreground which has a different working directory than the
current working directory of the shell. Thus if you start a background
job, then change the shell's working directory and then cause the
background job to run in the foreground, the shell warns you that the
working directory of the currently running foreground job is different
from that of the shell.

% dirs -l
/mnt/bill
% cd myproject
% dirs
~/myproject
% ed prog.c
1143
^Z
Stopped
% cd ..
% ls
myproject
textfile
% fg
ed prog.c (wd: ~/myproject)

This way the shell warns you when there
is an implied change of working directory, even though no cd command was
issued. In the above example the `ed' job was still in `/mnt/bill/project'
even though the shell had changed to `/mnt/bill'.
A similar warning is given when such a foreground job
terminates or is suspended (using the \s-2STOP\s0 signal) since
the return to the shell again implies a change of working directory.

% fg
ed prog.c (wd: ~/myproject)
 . . . after some editing
q
(wd now: ~)
%

These messages are sometimes confusing if you use programs that change
their own working directories, since the shell only remembers which
directory a job is started in, and assumes it stays there.
The `-l' option of
 jobs will type the working directory
of suspended or background jobs when it is different
from the current working directory of the shell.

Useful built-in commands

We now give a few of the useful built-in commands of the shell describing
how they are used.

The
 alias command described above is used to assign new aliases and to show the
existing aliases.
With no arguments it prints the current aliases.
It may also be given only one argument such as

alias ls

to show the current alias for, e.g., `ls'.

The
 echo command prints its arguments.
It is often used in
 "shell scripts" or as an interactive command
to see what filename expansions will produce.

The
 history command will show the contents of the history list.
The numbers given with the history events can be used to reference
previous events which are difficult to reference using the
contextual mechanisms introduced above.
There is also a shell variable called
 prompt. By placing a `!' character in its value the shell will there substitute
the number of the current command in the history list.
You can use this number to refer to this command in a history substitution.
Thus you could

set prompt=\'\e! % \'

Note that the `!' character had to be
 escaped here even within `\'' characters.

The
 limit command is used to restrict use of resources.
With no arguments it prints the current limitations:

cputime unlimited
filesize unlimited
datasize 5616 kbytes
stacksize 512 kbytes
coredumpsize unlimited
.so  tabs

Limits can be set, e.g.:

limit coredumpsize 128k

Most reasonable units abbreviations will work; see the
 csh manual page for more details.

The
 logout command can be used to terminate a login shell which has
 ignoreeof set.

The
 rehash command causes the shell to recompute a table of where commands are
located. This is necessary if you add a command to a directory
in the current shell's search path and wish the shell to find it,
since otherwise the hashing algorithm may tell the shell that the
command wasn't in that directory when the hash table was computed.

The
 repeat command can be used to repeat a command several times.
Thus to make 5 copies of the file
 one in the file
 five you could do

repeat 5 cat one >> five


The
 setenv command can be used
to set variables in the environment.
Thus

setenv TERM adm3a

will set the value of the environment variable \s-2TERM\s0
to
`adm3a'.
A user program
 printenv exists which will print out the environment.
It might then show:

% printenv
HOME=/usr/bill
SHELL=/bin/csh
PATH=:/usr/ucb:/bin:/usr/bin:/usr/local
TERM=adm3a
USER=bill
%


The
 source command can be used to force the current shell to read commands from
a file.
Thus

source .cshrc

can be used after editing in a change to the
 .cshrc file which you wish to take effect right away.

The
 time command can be used to cause a command to be timed no matter how much
\s-2CPU\s0 time it takes.
Thus

% time cp /etc/rc /usr/bill/rc
0.0u 0.1s 0:01 8% 2+1k 3+2io 1pf+0w
% time wc /etc/rc /usr/bill/rc
 52 178 1347 /etc/rc
 52 178 1347 /usr/bill/rc
 104 356 2694 total
0.1u 0.1s 0:00 13% 3+3k 5+3io 7pf+0w
%

indicates that the
 cp command used a negligible amount of user time (u)
and about 1/10th of a system time (s); the elapsed time was 1 second (0:01),
there was an average memory usage of 2k bytes of program space and 1k
bytes of data space over the cpu time involved (2+1k); the program
did three disk reads and two disk writes (3+2io), and took one page fault
and was not swapped (1pf+0w).
The word count command
 wc on the other hand used 0.1 seconds of user time and 0.1 seconds of system
time in less than a second of elapsed time.
The percentage `13%' indicates that over the period when it was active
the command `wc' used an average of 13 percent of the available \s-2CPU\s0
cycles of the machine.

The
 unalias and
 unset commands can be used
to remove aliases and variable definitions from the shell, and
 unsetenv removes variables from the environment.

What else?

This concludes the basic discussion of the shell for terminal users.
There are more features of the shell to be discussed here, and all
features of the shell are discussed in its manual pages.
One useful feature which is discussed later is the
 foreach built-in command which can be used to run the same command
sequence with a number of different arguments.

If you intend to use \s-2UNIX\s0 a lot you should look through
the rest of this document and the csh manual pages (section1) to become familiar
with the other facilities which are available to you.
.bp