Copyright (C) Caldera International Inc. 2001-2002. All rights reserved.

Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are
met:

Redistributions of source code and documentation must retain the above
copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following
disclaimer.

Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.

All advertising materials mentioning features or use of this software
must display the following acknowledgement:

This product includes software developed or owned by Caldera
International, Inc. Neither the name of Caldera International, Inc.
nor the names of other contributors may be used to endorse or promote
products derived from this software without specific prior written
permission.

USE OF THE SOFTWARE PROVIDED FOR UNDER THIS LICENSE BY CALDERA
INTERNATIONAL, INC. AND CONTRIBUTORS ``AS IS'' AND ANY EXPRESS OR
IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED
WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE
DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL CALDERA INTERNATIONAL, INC. BE LIABLE
FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR
CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF
SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR
BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY,
WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE
OR OTHERWISE) RISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN
IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.

@(#)ss6 8.1 (Berkeley) 6/8/93

$FreeBSD$
6: Precedence

There is one common situation where the rules given above for resolving conflicts are not sufficient; this is in the parsing of arithmetic expressions. Most of the commonly used constructions for arithmetic expressions can be naturally described by the notion of precedence levels for operators, together with information about left or right associativity. It turns out that ambiguous grammars with appropriate disambiguating rules can be used to create parsers that are faster and easier to write than parsers constructed from unambiguous grammars. The basic notion is to write grammar rules of the form expr : expr OP expr and expr : UNARY expr for all binary and unary operators desired. This creates a very ambiguous grammar, with many parsing conflicts. As disambiguating rules, the user specifies the precedence, or binding strength, of all the operators, and the associativity of the binary operators. This information is sufficient to allow Yacc to resolve the parsing conflicts in accordance with these rules, and construct a parser that realizes the desired precedences and associativities.

The precedences and associativities are attached to tokens in the declarations section. This is done by a series of lines beginning with a Yacc keyword: %left, %right, or %nonassoc, followed by a list of tokens. All of the tokens on the same line are assumed to have the same precedence level and associativity; the lines are listed in order of increasing precedence or binding strength. Thus, %left \'+\' \'-\' %left \'*\' \'/\' describes the precedence and associativity of the four arithmetic operators. Plus and minus are left associative, and have lower precedence than star and slash, which are also left associative. The keyword %right is used to describe right associative operators, and the keyword %nonassoc is used to describe operators, like the operator .LT. in Fortran, that may not associate with themselves; thus, A .LT. B .LT. C is illegal in Fortran, and such an operator would be described with the keyword %nonassoc in Yacc. As an example of the behavior of these declarations, the description %right \'=\' %left \'+\' \'-\' %left \'*\' \'/\' %% expr : expr \'=\' expr | expr \'+\' expr | expr \'-\' expr | expr \'*\' expr | expr \'/\' expr | NAME ; might be used to structure the input a = b = c*d - e - f*g as follows: a = ( b = ( ((c*d)-e) - (f*g) ) ) When this mechanism is used, unary operators must, in general, be given a precedence. Sometimes a unary operator and a binary operator have the same symbolic representation, but different precedences. An example is unary and binary \'-\'; unary minus may be given the same strength as multiplication, or even higher, while binary minus has a lower strength than multiplication. The keyword, %prec, changes the precedence level associated with a particular grammar rule. %prec appears immediately after the body of the grammar rule, before the action or closing semicolon, and is followed by a token name or literal. It causes the precedence of the grammar rule to become that of the following token name or literal. For example, to make unary minus have the same precedence as multiplication the rules might resemble: %left \'+\' \'-\' %left \'*\' \'/\' %% expr : expr \'+\' expr | expr \'-\' expr | expr \'*\' expr | expr \'/\' expr | \'-\' expr %prec \'*\' | NAME ;

A token declared by %left, %right, and %nonassoc need not be, but may be, declared by %token as well.

The precedences and associativities are used by Yacc to resolve parsing conflicts; they give rise to disambiguating rules. Formally, the rules work as follows:

The precedences and associativities are recorded for those tokens and literals that have them. A precedence and associativity is associated with each grammar rule; it is the precedence and associativity of the last token or literal in the body of the rule. If the %prec construction is used, it overrides this default. Some grammar rules may have no precedence and associativity associated with them. When there is a reduce/reduce conflict, or there is a shift/reduce conflict and either the input symbol or the grammar rule has no precedence and associativity, then the two disambiguating rules given at the beginning of the section are used, and the conflicts are reported. If there is a shift/reduce conflict, and both the grammar rule and the input character have precedence and associativity associated with them, then the conflict is resolved in favor of the action (shift or reduce) associated with the higher precedence. If the precedences are the same, then the associativity is used; left associative implies reduce, right associative implies shift, and nonassociating implies error.

Conflicts resolved by precedence are not counted in the number of shift/reduce and reduce/reduce conflicts reported by Yacc. This means that mistakes in the specification of precedences may disguise errors in the input grammar; it is a good idea to be sparing with precedences, and use them in an essentially ``cookbook'' fashion, until some experience has been gained. The y.output file is very useful in deciding whether the parser is actually doing what was intended.