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22 .\" DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS
33 introduction to the
34 shell and gives references to sections of the shell
40 is in the \s-2UNIX\s0 User Reference manual in section 1.
71 Each directory has a file `..' in it which is a reference to its
79 you can return to the parent directory by doing
100 of the entire directory system \- called the
114 specifies a shorter or different name for a \s-2UNIX\s0
115 command, or a transformation on a command to be performed in
124 is used to remove
128 Commands in \s-2UNIX\s0 receive a list of
144 is said to be the
148 The list of arguments to a command written in the shell language
155 Commands started without waiting for them to complete are called
163 \- the part after
174 job to continue execution in the
178 A directory containing binaries of programs and shell scripts to be
191 If you wish to execute them often, the name of the directories
198 is a builtin command used to exit from loops within the control
203 builtin command is used to exit from a
212 Most commands in \s-2UNIX\s0 are not built into the shell,
225 statement in the shell's control structure, similar to that of the
233 It is usually used to look at the contents of a single file on the terminal,
238 command is used to change the
253 is usually used because it is easier to type.
257 command is used to change the shell which you use on \s-2UNIX\s0.
260 You can change your shell to `/bin/csh' by doing
262 chsh your-login-name /bin/csh
268 It is only necessary to do this once.
269 The next time you log in to \s-2UNIX\s0 after doing this command,
276 It is usually used on binary files, or to see if two files are identical (3.6).
285 a directory within the \s-2UNIX\s0 system, is called a
294 The convention on \s-2UNIX\s0 is that the first word of a
295 command names the function to be performed (1.1).
311 which has multiple strings as value is said to have
322 loop to cycle prematurely.
323 Similar to the
326 .IP control-
329 characters, are produced by holding down the \s-2CONTROL\s0 key
331 the \s-2SHIFT\s0 key is used to produce upper case characters. Thus
332 .I control- c
333 is produced by holding down the \s-2CONTROL\s0 key while pressing the
334 `c' key. Usually \s-2UNIX\s0 prints a caret (^) followed by the
338 .I control- c
346 or `sdb (1)' in order to determine what went wrong with the program (1.8).
351 (where `Illegal instruction' is only one of several possible
352 messages), you should report this to the author of the program
358 (copy) program is used to copy the contents of one file into another
360 It is one of the most commonly used \s-2UNIX\s0 commands (1.6).
370 It is usually used to change the setting of the variable
372 and to set
374 parameters which are to take effect globally (2.1).
402 to label the code to be executed if none of the
405 .IP \s-2DELETE\s0
407 \s-2DELETE\s0
409 \s-2RUBOUT\s0
410 key on the terminal normally causes an interrupt to be sent to the current job.
411 Many users change the interrupt character to be ^C.
415 after you logout is said to be
418 An error message produced by a program is often referred to as a
420 Most error messages are not written to the
423 Error messsages are instead written to the
431 At any time you are in one particular
437 command will change you to another
484 command is part of the `if-then-else-endif' control
493 up to a line starting with the word
500 .IP \s-2EOF\s0
502 .I "end\f1-\fPof\f1-\fPfile"
503 is generated by the terminal by a control-d,
504 and whenever a command reads to the end of a file which
509 .I "end\f1-\fPof\f1-\fPfile"
512 .I "end\f1-\fPof\f1-\fPfile" .
513 The shell has an option to ignore
514 .I "end\f1-\fPof\f1-\fPfile"
517 by typing too many control-d's (1.1, 1.8, 3.8).
519 A character `\e' used to prevent the special meaning of a metacharacter
520 is said to
535 There is also a non-printing character called
538 \s-2ESC\s0
540 \s-2ALTMODE\s0
542 Some older \s-2UNIX\s0 systems use this character to indicate that
543 output is to be
545 Most systems use control-s to stop the output and control-q to start it.
559 are often used to search for information in this file.
564 command is used to force termination of a shell script,
567 A command which discovers a problem may reflect this back to the command
569 It does this by returning a non-zero number as its
575 command can be used to force a shell command script to give a non-zero
580 by other strings is referred to as the process of
587 are also referred to as
611 `\-me'
622 is used to run a
630 Each file in \s-2UNIX\s0 has a name consisting of up to 14 characters
650 it is easy to name all the files in
656 files in other users' directories to be named easily (1.6, 4.2).
658 Many \s-2UNIX\s0 commands accept arguments which are not the names
659 of files or other users but are used to modify the action of the commands.
660 These are referred to as
662 options, and by convention consist of one or more letters preceded by
663 the character `\-' (1.2).
667 `\-s' to list the sizes of files.
670 ls \-s
675 command is used in shell scripts and at the terminal to specify
680 shell is waiting for them to finish before prompting for another
681 command they are said to be
685 This is as opposed to
694 used in shell scripts to transfer control to a given label (3.7).
720 command prints the first few lines of one or more files.
722 about it is sometimes useful to run
725 This will usually show enough of what is in these files to let you decide
729 is also used to describe the part of a
741 stored in a shell variable to be used (3.6).
745 mechanism of the shell allows previous commands to be repeated,
746 possibly after modification to correct typing mistakes or to change
765 command with no arguments takes you back to this directory, whose
777 command is used in shell command scripts to make decisions
778 about what course of action to take next (3.6).
782 if you type a control-d at a prompt of `% '.
793 This is useful if you sometimes accidentally type too many control-d
797 Many commands on \s-2UNIX\s0 take information from the terminal or from
810 Many commands will also read from a file specified as argument.
821 nor give it a filename to use as
823 Special mechanisms exist for supplying input to commands in shell
828 is a signal to a program that is generated by typing ^C. (On older versions
829 of UNIX the \s-2RUBOUT\s0 or \s-2DELETE\s0 key were used for this purpose.)
830 It causes most programs to stop execution.
837 to finish, the shell does not listen to
841 because many commands
871 which is printed next to the job in the output of the
876 commands to indicate
890 to a job causing it to terminate (2.6).
896 directory is read by the shell each time you login to \s-2UNIX\s0
901 commands to the shell itself (2.1).
917 command causes a login shell to exit.
918 Normally, a login shell will exit when you hit control-d
920 .I end\f1-\fPof\f1-\fPfile,
927 to log off the \s-2UNIX\s0 system (2.8).
929 When you log off of \s-2UNIX\s0 the shell will execute commands from
941 spooled and printed on the \s-2UNIX\s0 line printer.
944 a list of filenames as arguments to be printed.
945 It is most common to use
953 (list files) command is one of the most commonly used \s-2UNIX\s0
965 program is used to send and receive messages from other \s-2UNIX\s0
970 command is used to maintain one or more related files and to
971 organize functions to be performed on these files.
972 In many ways
974 is easier to use, and more helpful than
987 often referred to is the
988 `\s-2UNIX\s0 manual'.
989 It contains 8 numbered sections with a description of each \s-2UNIX\s0
1004 If you can't decide what manual page to look in, try the
1010 Many characters which are neither letters nor digits have special meaning
1011 either to the shell or to \s-2UNIX\s0.
1014 If it is necessary to place these characters in arguments to commands
1027 The appendix to this user's manual lists the
1033 command is used to create a new directory.
1045 mechanism can also be used to perform modification in a similar way,
1050 writes a file on your terminal allowing you to control how much text
1066 is set to suppress the
1072 command tells the shell to report on the termination of a specific
1074 at the exact time it occurs as opposed to waiting
1075 until just before the next prompt to report the termination.
1078 variable, if set, causes the shell to always report the termination
1085 command is built into the shell and is used to control the action
1090 Many commands in \s-2UNIX\s0 result in some lines of text which are
1097 which is normally connected to the user's terminal.
1101 of a command to a file (1.3).
1107 of one command to become the
1124 Normally these go to the terminal even if the
1126 has been sent to a file or another command, but it is possible
1135 It always checks first to see if the command it is given is
1141 variable, left to right.
1152 Scripts of shell commands will be executed using another shell to interpret
1158 was executed to turn this execute permission on (3.3).
1159 If you add new commands to a directory in the
1181 are interpreted relative to the current directory
1191 of each connected to the
1198 mechanism used to connect these commands is indicated by
1207 command. It returns to the directory without having to type its name,
1212 The part of a computer system to which each terminal is
1217 some of which are connected to telephone lines
1218 for dial-up access, and some of which are permanently
1219 wired directly to specific terminals.
1223 command is used to prepare listings of the contents of files
1236 \s-2UNIX\s0 assigns each
1239 started \- called the
1242 can be used to stop individual
1261 Many programs will print a
1272 which may be set to a different value to change the shell's main
1282 before the change is made, allowing you to return to the same
1289 command is used to show the processes you are currently running.
1291 an indication of the terminal name it is attached to,
1294 and the amount of \s-2CPU\s0 time it has used so far.
1299 you use to run the
1315 signal, generated by a control-\e,
1316 is used to terminate programs which are behaving unreasonably.
1321 using the character `\e', is referred to as
1325 The routing of input or output from or to a file is known
1332 command tells the shell to rebuild its internal table of which commands
1335 This is necessary when a new program is installed in one of these
1351 refers to some file or directory in the
1355 between `/' characters refer to directories below the
1378 starting with `/' are said to be
1392 .IP \s-2RUBOUT\s0
1393 The \s-2RUBOUT\s0 or \s-2DELETE\s0
1394 key is often used to erase the previously typed character; some users
1395 prefer the \s-2BACKSPACE\s0 for this purpose. On older versions of \s-2UNIX\s0
1396 this key served as the \s-2INTR\s0 character.
1398 Files whose names begin with a `#' are referred to as
1401 days of non-use, or more frequently if disk space becomes tight (1.3).
1405 It is often possible to perform simple tasks using these
1408 using the shell to selectively run other programs (3.3, 3.10).
1412 command is used to assign new values to shell variables
1413 and to show the values of the current variables.
1414 Many shell variables have special meaning to the shell itself.
1425 command can be used to print the value of the variables in the environment.
1430 It is possible to write and run your own
1436 This manual deals with the details of one particular
1447 in \s-2UNIX\s0 is a short message that is sent to a running program
1448 which causes something to happen to that process.
1467 command causes the shell to read commands from a specified file.
1476 appendix to this manual.
1478 We refer often to the
1495 Commands may return non-zero
1500 is set to the
1509 job to become
1520 program changes certain parameters inside \s-2UNIX\s0 which determine
1532 We also refer to
1540 after a \s-2STOP\s0 signal is sent to it, either by typing a
1541 .I control -z
1559 to select one of a number of sequences of commands based on an
1561 It is similar to the
1570 .I end\f1-\fPof\f1-\fPfile
1573 It is also possible to terminate commands by sending them
1586 `if-then-else-endif' control construct used in command scripts (3.6).
1590 command can be used to measure the amount of \s-2CPU\s0
1597 program is used to set standard erase and kill characters
1598 and to tell the system what kind of terminal you are using.
1606 in \s-2UNIX\s0 to indicate the
1619 .IP \s-2UNIX\s0
1620 \s-2UNIX\s0 is an operating system on which
1623 \s-2UNIX\s0 provides facilities which allow
1626 you may wish to use.
1642 hold one or more strings as value.
1661 shell variable can be set to cause commands to be echoed
1667 .I \-v
1679 A sequence of characters which forms an argument to a command is called
1682 Many characters which are neither letters, digits, `\-', `.' nor `/'
1699 At any given time you are in one particular directory, called
1714 command is an obsolete way of communicating with other users who are logged in to
1715 \s-2UNIX\s0 (you have to take turns typing). If you are both using display